A Critical Analysis of the Communist Manifesto

The Communist Manifesto was written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels which contained all of the ideas and assumptions by Marx. The Communist Manifesto was able to inspire a number of philosophers and theorists.And as it was published at the height of the political turmoil in Europe, it also served as an engine for many revolutions that took place within the past century. Hence, following the publication of the Communist Manifesto, it inspired a number of revolutions to overturn the rise of Capitalism, particularly in Russia and China (â€Å"The Communist Manifesto,† n.p).The writings by Marx and Engels which composed the main tenets in the Communist Manifesto influenced revolutions not by just mere agitation through writing; rather they fueled revolutionary groups by confronting the capitalist forces through the forces of the proletariats. They discovered the special role of the proletariats, who they believed were capable of overthrowing the capitalist class (â€Å"The Comm unist Manifesto,† n.p).The Communist Manifesto is centered on the idea of class struggle and continuing antagonisms in the society. This according to the Manifesto, class struggle revolves between the bourgeoisie and the proletarians – the oppressor and the oppressed; the few and many. Hence, the Manifesto predicts the probable ways of eliminating oppression by abolishing the basic factors that instigate oppression – example: private property – which shall eventually lead towards overthrowing the bourgeosie (â€Å"The Communist Manifesto,† n.p).In accordance with this pursuit, Marx drafted the Communist Manifesto guided by Historical Dialectical Materialism in order to point out the problems that had been consuming the society. Using this guide, he predicted the changes that could happen in the society as the mode of production changes gradually.And these changes shall become the engine for a revolutionary overthrow of the current dominating class. And as capitalism will reach its peak, it will become saturated and will eventually meet its demise under the leadership of the proletariats.The Pursuit of a Stateless SocietyConsequently, Marx noted predictions on several factors that will help build a stateless society. This includes: (1) enforcement of progressive taxation. (2) abolition of inheritance, (3) equalization of wages and (4) the communal appropriation of lands. With these things in mind, Marx pictured a stateless society wherein antagonisms among classes can be eliminated.However, there are various sides that are to be looked upon if the society should be changed. There are specific levels wherein a country should cope with in order to effectively carry out these kinds of changes which can prove to be beneficial for the citizens.Different countries may react on certain circumstances if things are to be imposed on them. And there should be clarity of the possible outcomes that it may bring. In particular, communist cou ntries had deteriorated and has broken down in the last decades.None of the communist countries have sustained its staying power, in particular, China and Russia. And for the case of Cuba, their existence in the communist realm has served as an example to no one.For the Communists, especially for Marx, a stateless society meant the establishment of a classless society and rendering common ownership of all the means of productions. It also entails equitable distribution of income among the citizens. However, it requires a number of processes and cycles that are to be undertaken in order to achieve it. Consequently, the factors mentioned above are the firsts on the list in attaining a classless society.As such, though these factors that Marx mentioned in the Manifesto may contribute greatly towards the attainment of a stateless society, they may have negative implications in the society.There are still downsides that are attributable with these steps that may have direct effect in the growth and development of the society, and also lies the possibility that it may serve detrimental outcomes for them. Thus, these policies should be analyzed to assess their reasonability and soundness if they can be beneficial to the people in general.Thesis and ArgumentThe purpose of this paper would be to carefully analyze the contents of the Manifesto, in particular, the four measures that Marx proposed towards attaining a stateless society. Thus, the thesis of this paper is to prove that there are adversaries that may be caused if those measures will be employed. And that the reasonability of each measure depends on the possible outcomes that may be derived from it.Hence, the arguments revolve on three parallel ideas: (1) these measures if employed, though may speed up the process of attaining a stateless society, may also impede social, political and economic growth; (2) ironically, though a stateless society aims towards eliminating class antagonisms, these four measures men tioned.Considerably increases the gap between the proletariats and the bourgeosie by the intentional disregard of the bourgeosie class; and (3) given the altruistic desire from the Manifesto to eradicate poverty, the ideals presented through these measures were really idealistic and utopian, hence may render these inappropriate and not feasible for most of the countries.Progressive TaxationProgressive taxation is one of the twelve measures that Communism intended to enforce. Progressive taxation is a system wherein tax rates are imposed based on the economic status and well-being of the person to be taxed. The tax rates are identified according to the ability of an individual to pay. In essence, if a person earns big, then he will be subjected to higher tax rates; the same way that a person who earns little will be taxed according to his capacity to pay (Lakoff and Budner, n.p).For the advocates of Communism, progresive taxation can provide redistribution of capital, which they beli eve can further hasten the process of eliminating class struggle. Through this, it is believed that redistributing the tax burden towards the people who can afford to pay can stabilize the flow of capital, and the economy in return. In addition, progresive taxation also serves as a monitoring device to limit acquisition of private property.Furthermore, progresive taxation eases the burden for those who cannot pay enabling them to allot a larger portion of their income for their family's basic needs. Thus, progressive taxation for the Communists render individuals to have a more equitable outcome so that they can make the most out of the fruits of their labor (â€Å"Capitalism, Socialism & Communism,† n.p).Although there are certain benefits that are attainable through progressive taxation, likewise there are downsides of it. There are individuals who consider this kind of tax policy as discriminatory and inefficient.Progressive taxation is discriminatory in such away that the people who work harder gets more compelled on paying higher taxes; while those who do not work and strive enough are being subjected to receive government subsidies and privileges.In addition, it caters inefficiency in the way taxes are being imposed on individuals, while tolerating income misappropriation bundled by the State's   deliberate interference which is then translated in the citizen's fear of crossing the edges between democracy and dictatorship. (â€Å"Few Words on the Nature of Taxation.† n.p).Thus, as progressive taxation can indeed eliminate class struggle and enhance the ability to create a stateless society through equitable sharing of tax obligations, it also harnesses the biased nature of the Communist government in their inclination towards the poor.   Though it is rational and reasonable to impose taxes on individuals who have higher capacity to pay, certain considerations are also ought to be given.

Petroleum Exploration

Petroleum Exploration and Production consists of four major processes of exploration, well-development, production and site abandonment. In this assignment, we had chosen the major process of exploration and production. Petroleum Exploration is conducted to find and detect the site which contains oil or natural gas. Visible surface features such as oil seeps, natural gas seeps, pockmarks provide basic evidence of hydrocarbon generation. However, most exploration depends on highly sophisticated technology to detect and determine the extent of these deposits using exploration geophysics.Areas thought to contain hydrocarbons are initially subjected to a gravity survey, magnetic survey, passive seismic or regional seismic reflection surveys to detect large-scale features of the sub-surface geology. Features of interest are subjected to more detailed seismic surveys which work on the principle of the time it takes for reflected sound waves to travel through matter of varying densities and using the process of depth conversion to create a profile of the substructure.Finally, when a prospect has been identified and evaluated and passes the oil company's selection criteria, an exploration well is drilled in an attempt to conclusively determine the presence or absence of oil or gas. On the other hand, after the process of exploration and well development, the thrid process will be the production of oil. Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling.This comes after the studies of structural geology at the reservoir scale, sedimentary basin analysis, reservoir characterization mainly in terms of porosity and permeable structures. It is refined and separated, most easily by boiling point, into a large number of consumer products, from petrol or gasoline and kerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents used to make plastics and pharmaceuticals. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a wide variety of materials, and it is estimated that the world consumes about 88 million bar rels each day.

Poem “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe Essay

This is a magnificent piece of poetry. The hypnotic monotony of rhythm reflected the speaker’s frame of mind. The poem is clearly about the sorrow he experienced over the death of his wife and her ideal, spiritual love. The raven, being a symbol of death, and the lines, â€Å"Other friends have flown before-On the morrow he will leave me as my hopes have flown before,† meant that he was afraid death might abandon him, leaving him comfortless. Then he sits in front of the bird wondering why the raven croaked â€Å"Nevermore†. The raven is trying to tell him â€Å"she shall press, ah, nevermore†, but he thinks the bird is lying because his grief is so great, and he doesn’t believe that Lenore’s death is final. When he realized that the raven is trying to tell him that her death is final, he becomes angry and upset. He begs the raven to tell him if she is in heaven, whill the angels love her and take care of her the way she should be. In the last four lines of the poemwhere â€Å"the raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting,† and the shadows that â€Å"shall be lifted-nevermore,† mean that the raven is a symbol of the wisdom and knowledge that he will always have memories of Lenore, but that her death is final. He will always mourn her.

Cultural Differences Study of China, Nigeria and Brazil Essay

Cultural Differences Study of China, Nigeria and Brazil - Essay Example In this, Hall’s cultural factors can be used to study the cultural differences that exists between the three countries in term of the sharing of information and experience, which is expected to bring about increased knowledge. Given the two cultural contexts that Hall gives as high context and low context, Brazil and Nigeria are identified to be part of the high context, where very little explanation is needed because much is taken for granted (Miller and Donna, 2002).Because the people of these two countries have many different contextual elements that helps them to understand the rules, they find it a good thing to easily share with others what they have, including information and experience, making it an opportunity to tap knowledge easily (Drucker, 2004). China on the other hand is low context according to Hall’s cultural factors and thus takes very little for granted. In comparison to the parent country which is U.K. it would be said that in terms of this cultural dimension, China will be considered as the preferred choice, given that U.K. also belongs to the low context and takes very little for granted (Drucker, 2004). But because the people are highly particular about almost everything that goes on around, they love to share their experience and information so that visitors can easily understand and cooperate with them (Lacity and Willcocks, 2001).2.1.2 Encouraged InnovationFoster (2000) posited that heterogeneity of cross-culture organisational interactions is a useful opportunity that encourage innovation.

Hank Aaron or Barry Bonds Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hank Aaron or Barry Bonds - Essay Example Bonds did smack five homers in 42 at bats in a cameo return in September, increasing his career total to 708, seven short of surpassing Ruth as the most prolific lefthanded power hitter ever. Bonds, 41, vowed to play next season with a slimmer physique to reduce the wear on his body. His first test drive will be as a DH in the World Baseball Classic in March. Given his age and surgical history, the condition of his knees appears to be the only thing keeping the Giants' leftfielder from slugging his 756th homer and overtaking Hank Aaron's alltime record by June 2007. Major League Baseball will be conflicted about how to celebrate Bonds's eclipsing Ruth. Scores of security agents will patrol the outfield seats to verify possession of the 715 ball. Should it occur on the road, pockets of fans will boo. Whatever ceremony is staged will be muted because of Bonds's connection with BALCO. The occasion will take place without the commissioner of baseball, who will claim no obligation to be on hand for a player securing second place on an alltime list. The top spot will be a different story, forcing Bud Selig to attend, where he will applaud politely. Send his butt to first. Don't even think about pitching to him. I don't care if no one's on base. Let's not have him beat us in the first inning. I'd rather have him on first with the bases loaded than those guys out there in the water fighting over a ball. And so it goes with Barry ... In turn, the hostility between Barry and the media is real - as real as his feared black bat, as real as his rock-hard body, as real as his focus to do his job without regard to what anyone says about him. Bonds' Godfather Willie Mays says, "He thinks no one likes him." Mays and Barry are total opposites. During his career, Mays was an engaging personality, but he could be mean as the devil to reporters he didn't like, and those he didn't trust. In that respect, he shares a common bond with his godson, who in July will turn 40 years of age. This season, Barry is sitting on 10 homeruns, 28 runs scored, 27 hits, 22 RBI and an .818 slugging percentage - tops in all of baseball. In 33 games, he's had 77 batting attempts, 56 of them walks. Absolutely every manager in baseball has taken the bat out of his hand. He's a patient one at the plate, so he's not going fishing. Let's go back to the Mark McGwire year of 1998 when Mark hit a MLB record-busting 70 homeruns. If you dissect that season you will discover a raw number of pitchers who threw batting practice pitches to Mark as he surged towards the record. It was like, here comes a fast one down the middle. It was almost the same with Sammy Sosa, one of baseball's most popular players. No such thing for Bonds, however. Hardly anyone wants to see him past Babe. And another thing, virtually every time there is talk of Barry and the record, it's always, "Will he pass Ruth" The hell with Ruth; Bonds is chasing Aaron. The Babe is only in the way. In one game earlier this season, Barry drew four intentional walks to first base. He's without question the greatest player of his time, and arguably the greatest player of all time. A six-time MVP, no one

Principles of Detail Design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Principles of Detail Design - Essay Example Clements et al differentiate architectural design from detailed design in a uniquely interesting way. He alluded that architecture could be defined as a form of design yet the reverse was not possible. The interpretation is that design is not within the realms of architecture since the end of any masterpiece can be manipulative. There is a close relation between detailed design, architecture and construction. From this, designers aiming for success in detailed design are obligated to have or obtain full understanding of the requirements and architecture of the system. Proficiency in particular design strategies such as object-oriented, programming languages, and methods and processes for software quality control becomes a requirement. Detailed design acts as a bridge between design and code in the same way that architecture provides a link between requirements and design. When it comes to implementation, it can be debated that most problem solving activities occur in the detailed des ign phase. This can be demonstrated in the case where a formal process is followed, and the requirements are met by the detailed design and architecture. In numerous real-world applications, intricate problem solving is deferred by the architectural design activity to the detailed design, predominantly through abstraction. In some instances, specifying requirements is also submitted to detailed design. In view of these reasons, detailed design has to assume the role of gatekeeper to ensure that the specification and design of the system are sufficiently completed even before construction begins. This can be particularly hard for large-scale systems built from scratch devoid of experience with the development of systems that are alike. Tasks such as understanding the requirements and architecture, documenting software design, evaluating detailed designs, monitoring and controlling implementation, and creating detailed designs, become major factors in implementing detailed design acti vity. In contrast to software architecture, where the comprehensive set of conditions are assessed and well understood, detailed design activity calls for designers to focus on the requirements assigned to their explicit components. After understanding the architecture and requirements for allocated components, is when the detailed design of software modules can begin. The components of detailed design include both behavioral and structural designs. This is demonstrated by the focus on interface design (which includes internal interface design and external interface design), graphical user interface design-which could be an extension of the designs started during architecture, and internal component design (both structural and behavioral), and data design. The Open-Closed principle (OCP) is a crucial principle for creating recyclable and adjustable systems that advance gracefully with time. The key idea behind the OCP is that working code should remain untouched and any new addition s should come as extensions of the original work. This does not mean that designs modification cannot occur; it means they should be done by incorporating new code

Write an essay on a cultural issue as related to humanistic

Write an on a cultural issue as related to humanistic psychotherapy - - Essay Example the eighteen century had a dramatic transformation when the age of the industrial revolution started the latter did not just revolutionize the way we worked but most profoundly changed the structure of our societies and values where capitalism became the new god and the science replaced the religious beliefs that for a long time have been playing a supporting role for the people in need during difficult times.  Humanistic therapists emerged in the USA in the 1950s such as Maslow Abraham and Rogers Carl. These therapists formulated different humanistic theories and procedures for effective psychotherapy. Rogers delivered a speech in 1940 at the University of Minnesota about new concepts of psychotherapy that became the origin of humanistic psychotherapies. The American Psychological association (APA) launched the first journal on humanistic psychology in 1973. It is a professional organization representing psychology and consists of researchers, educators, physicians, consultants, a nd students. Culture may be defined as patterns of norms derived from traditions that influence personal behavior. These norms may include values, beliefs, customs, thoughts, and institutions such as religious, racial, ethnic and social groups. Cultural beliefs are passed from older generations to younger generations within a given society. Interaction with different cultures causes behavioral and psychological changes within an individual. Individuals migrating from one society to another have difficulty when adapting to the culture of the new society (Lago, 2006). Culture is not static, and interaction with other cultures may cause culture change. On the other hand, ethnicity can be defined as the sense of belonging to a group alienated to a particular society. Ethnicity is caused by social pressure and can only be resolved through psychological interventions. Race refers to the physical appearance of individuals as determined by the genetic composition. Humanistic therapy involves

History of Modern Architecture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

History of Modern Architecture - Essay Example The postmodern structures aimed seeking meaning and expression various architectural techniques, styles, forms. In order to meet with the aims, the postmodern architecture had to reject the strict rules of the modernism movement. On the other hand the modern structures were purely based on a thrifty use of material and other aspects of postmodern architectures like ornamentation, were absent (Curtis, 1987). The functionalism of modernism movement was dull and unattractive. It compelled the postmodern architects to focus on the communicating meaning; therefore, they start quoting historic traditions of architecture and merging it with modern designing creating new meaning. The revival of columns in structures is a common example, widely practiced throughout the world. This revival was to meet the aesthetical need but to fulfill a technological requirement. Similarly, Prairie home concept was based on designing structures that match humanity and the environment. Frank Lloyd Wright was the leader of this movement, and he named this philosophy organic evolution. Prairie house plan is sweeping horizontal lines and wide open floor plans. Furthermore, the concept of Prairie is characterized with central chimney, one-story projection, and numerous small windows. His ‘Falling water’ is considered as the best example of organic architecture (Curtis, 1987). Postmodernist architecture has evolved from modernism, incorporating traditional ways of architecture through modern technology and innovations. Contrary to a formalism of the International Style of modernism, the postmodernist architecture is based traditional wit, ornamental and reference. In other words the formal styles and functional way developed during modernism is replaced by styles, collide, a form is used. Hence, postmodern architecture revitalized the centuries old traditional

Using a Star Database Schema Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Using a Star Database Schema - Research Paper Example se of a dimensional model is to help decision makers in making strategic decisions without the need of help and support from database experts thereby avoiding extra cost. As a result timely and quality decisions are made. Research by Karen, David and Robert (2006), indicate that denormalization is advocated for in data warehouses as it promotes efficiency of the highest order when queries are run against the warehouse (Karen, David, & Robert, 2006). The concept of dimensional model was developed to cater denormalized data. A star schema model can arguably be referred to as a constrained ERD model. It consists of central entities known as the fact tables that get business event details. Star schema derives its name from the arrangement of the fact tables and dimensional entities forming a star-like arrangement. The representation of this arrangement diagrammatically constitutes the SSD. As a result of this arrangement around a business fact, SSD model is easy to understand. Star schema data model consists of one or more fact tables referencing any given number of dimension tables. There are several benefits of using star schema. First is convenient for simple queries. The star schema simplifies business logic in the realms of reporting. It also provides high level operation performance as a result of simpler queries execution. Lastly star schemas are deployed in most of OLAP systems to make proprietary OLAP cubes efficiently. According to Fig.1, most of the columns if not all in both the dimensions and fact tables are of null value. This means that the primary key is unique and mandatory. Data in the data warehouse comes from various multiple operational databases and therefore in some instances constraints applied in transactional databases need to be loosened. For instance in the star schema diagram in Fig.1, almost all the columns are of null value due to the fact they might lack data. Relationships on the parent sides are not mandatory meaning that there

Chronicle of a Death Foretold and Fly Away Peter Comparative Essay Essay Example for Free

Chronicle of a Death Foretold and Fly Away Peter Comparative Essay Essay Menace and threat are two elements in fiction that often help to create tension and build towards a climax. These components are evident in David Maloufs Fly Away Peter and Gabriel Garcia Marquezs Chronicle of a Death Foretold under two overarching themes: sense of duty and violence. Through the perspectives and experiences of different characters in the stories, both Malouf and Marquez develop the concept of peril that is sustained throughout their stories of war and murder. In Fly Away Peter, Malouf introduces the notion of threat in the context of war a place where people, including peace lovers like Jim, are forcibly drawn into. Jim is invited by Bert to ride on the bi-plane and Malouf reveals his blood fear, a bone fear, of leaving the earth and is thus portrayed as being resistant to change. When the war arrives, he feels panicky on this new and dangerous slope that had once been ground [that] stretched away to a clear future Brisbane is sliding towards Europe and the war as it is a duty befallen on patriotic men to prove their worth in defending the honour of their country. Many people seem to be supporting this view; Jim meets a girl who says passionately she would want to be in it because it is an opportunity, and similarly his father feels it is a chance to reach out and touch a unique thing. Malouf thus draws our attention to Jims change as he slide[s] with the rest down into the pit of war with superstitious dread and juxtaposes this to his initial uneas[e] about the new presence of bi-planes and man-made technology. This creates a sense of foreboding and threat, further emphasized by warnings such as catastrophe and madness, as Jim plunges into a brutal world of war from his sacred haven in the sanctuary (the light, and then the dark) to fight for his country. On the other hand, Marquez expresses the idea of threat in Chronicle of a Death Foretold through the rigidness of the townspeople in their ideas regarding tradition and family honour. To uphold the honour of their sister, the Vicario twins perceive as their duty to kill Santiago who supposedly took her virginity. However, this crime is largely condoned by their Catholic society and even Father Amador the priest pronounces their innocence before God. Marquez presents a town where first-degree murder is justified in the name of the cult of virginity and it is the responsibility of the men in the town to defend this tradition. Prudencia Cotes would never have married [Pablo] if he hadnt done what a man should do. Her mother tells Pedro and Pablo them honour doesnt wait and Clotilde Armenta voices her sympathy in saying it is a horrible duty thats fallen on them as they are duty-bound to avenge Angela. The twins are forced to conform to societys expectations of masculine assertiveness even if they couldnt sleep for the rest of [their lives] on their conscience. In killing Santiago, the twins have proved their status as men [and] the seduced sister was in possession of her honour once more in defending the validity of their culture. The town can be viewed, to an extent, as dysfunctional and a tense atmosphere is present throughout the book as readers know the threat of this cult will result in an innocent mans death. The theme of violence is exemplified in many characters and through the eyes of Jim, we see the menace posed in Mans capacity to cause suffering and death in Fly Away Peter. Even before the war, violence is hinted as being part of daily life when Jim witnesses the killing of a lone man with his hands over his face with blood between them as another figure, hurling itself from the shadows, brought him down. Although Jim has always been consciously rejecting any notions of violence, he discovers black anger in himself and a potential for violence when he faces Wizzers bullying later. He is shaken to realize that he has come closer to his fathers [similar] nature of violence unwittingly to the extent that he does not wish to be confronted with some depth in himself that frightened him and he doesnt understand. Killing in war is also epitomized by the brutality of Clancys death where Jim experiences for the first time Mans ruthlessness on a personal level. Clancys senseless death comes as a shock to him and Jim is greatly affected by this; the hosing off never left him clean and often woke from nightmares drenched in a wetness that dried and stuck. Malouf forcefully juxtaposes the previous setting of Jim buttering slabs of bread with the diversely opposite scene of Clancys accident, effectively demonstrating the harsh reality of war. Clancys passing further shows another step in Jims loss of innocence as he feels touched by the horrors of war and menace is manifested in Fly Away Peter through the ordinariness with which violence presents itself. Violence is a dominant theme in Chronicle of a Death Foretold as it is in Fly Away Peter as it leads to the ultimate menace of Santiagos death. It is a minor yet significant part of everyday life for most of the town; Victoria Guzman [disembowels] rabbits pull[s] out the insides by the roots and throw[s] the steaming guts to the dogs and Leandro Pornoy dies gored in the jugular vein by a bull all of which are accepted by the town matter-of-factly. The murder of Santiago is brutal as his liver was almost sliced in pieces, his pancreas [was] destroyed and there were perforations in the transverse colon and small intestine among other injuries. His death has been brought on by any one of the seven major wounds and this reflects an unnecessary level of violence on the part of the Vicario twins. Even after his death, Santiagos autopsy is mishandled as a syrup-coloured liquid began to flow from the wounds, drawing flies, and a purple blotch appeared on his upper lip and spread out very slowly up to his hairline and Father Amador remarks it was as if we killed him all over again after he was dead. Through the use of violence in the lives of common people and graphic imagery illustrating the aftermath of a murder, Santiagos killing mirrors the menace in which the town is under in their acceptance of the idea of violence. The themes of male duty and violence in both Fly Away Peter and Chronicle of a Death Foretold develop the concepts of threat and menace. Malouf uses Jims dilemma in enlisting for the war to highlight the threat of the blind trend in which men fight to prove their masculinity even though it results in countless lives lost and Jims experiences in the war that draw on the idea of menace in the form of violence. Conversely, Marquez develops the notion of threat through the tradition of the town surrounding Angela Vicarios enigmatic predicament which precipitates the menace of Santiagos murder wherein violence plays an important role. A tense and portentous atmosphere is thus crafted in both books as the authors expand on these themes, building up to a final climax.

History Of Suspension System Engineering Essay

History Of Suspension System Engineering Essay For my assignment, I will be talking about suspension. I will explain everything from the early development of the suspension system, the research and development, the differences of each suspension towards application, and so on. The main why the assignment has been done is because it teach us and tells us all sorts of things that is all about suspension and why is has build in such a way that the suspension should perform depending on the type of cars. History of Suspension System The first suspension to be introduced is from horse-drawn carriages in the 19th century. It uses a multiple layer of steels, or in some cases, use wood as a spring. It is known as a leaf spring. As modern cars were design to move at a faster speed, new type of suspension are needed. In the early 1900s, shock absorber were being introduced in cars by a guy name The Function and the Purpose of a Suspension System The main role of a suspension system is to maintain a maximum contact between the tyres and the road surface, to provide steering stability and also to provide good handling during low-speed and high-speed corners. The suspension helps to generate as much traction as possible, depending on the driver and how the driver handle the cars suspension system and helps to minimize the body roll resistance. It helps to isolate the body from the vibrations of the shock absorbers. Roads that currently exist are not flat and straight. If the roads are all flat and straight, theres no point installing a suspension system for cars. When roads are not flat, theres a force reacting on the shock absorber and the springs through the wheel. According to Newtons law of motion, all forces have both magnitude and direction. The other main importance of a suspension system is that help to provide a correct alignment during steering, to reduce the amount of body roll, to allow the driver to turn corner agg ressively without extreme body roll and to prevent body dive, that is to reduce the body to tilt up and down during acceleration and braking. Two main components are responsible to all these kind of job that is shock absorber and spring. Spring The function of the spring is to support the weight of the vehicle, and to absorb road shocks being transferred from the wheels. The spring bounces up and down when passing through holes, bumps, and uneven road surfaces. There are all sorts of springs: Coil- It is made out of a special steel rod, which is made by winding a wire around a cylinder. It is most commonly used in light vehicles. The wire will twist when the coil is being compressed or stretched. The design of a coil spring can be a cylindrical, barrel or conical shaped, depending on what kind of spring that are required for the type of the car. The material used for springs have to be capable of withstanding high stress and resisting fatigue. In early design, designers use high-carbon steel, but today, designers use a very minimum amount of alloy steel such as silico-manganese are used. Leaf Spring- It has several flexible tempered plates with different length, which is stacked and being held by a steel clip. It is mainly used on rear-wheel drive vehicles, such as 4 wheel drive. The function is the same as the coil, but the only difference is that the leaf has minimum amount of flexibility than the coil. The stiffness or rate of a leaf spring is governed by: Length of the spring- à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Å" the length of the spring, à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ the rate of the suspension Width of the leaf- à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ the width of the spring, à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ the rate of the suspension Thickness of the leaf- à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ the thickness of the leaf, à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ the rate of the suspension Number of leaves- à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ the amount of leaves, à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ the rate of the suspension Torsion Bar- A torsion bar is a long straight alloy-steel bar, fixed between the chassis to the suspension control arm. The torsion bar will twist at the centre of the bar when the spring moves upward and downward. The spring rate varies the length and the diameter of the bar. When the driver turns the wheel, the torsion bar will twist, and reduces the roll tendency. Air Spring- It is a rubber cylinder, filled with compressed air. This kind of spring is being used in heavy commercial vehicles and luxury cars. It provides comfort compared to the coil spring. The volume of air is being varied, depending on the load of the vehicle being added, to lower the vehicle, and go adjust the stiffness of the air spring. Rubber Spring- It is used as the main suspension spring, or fitted with a metal springs to improve / upgrade the suspension characteristics. Shock Absorber The function of a shock absorber is to help dampen the amount of bounce created by the spring. The absorber gives the spring the freedom of bounce, but shock absorber is there to help dampen the undesired amount of bounce and thus, create stability of the vehicle. Here are the few types of shock absorber being used currently on the roads: Hydraulic Shock Absorber- Most of the vehicles are using this kind of shock absorber. It is called a direct-acting telescopic type. Its damping action is being produced by the oil transfer, which is under pressure, and goes through the small valve which helps to restrict the oil flowing in and out. The most widely used is the twin-tube type. During compression, the piston moves towards the shock absorber. And during rebound, its a complete opposite. Gas-Pressurized Shock Absorber- In the hydraulic shock absorber, the oil heats up as the suspension is in motion. This shock absorber helps to reduce the dissolve pressure by using fluid with nitrogen. This improves the dampening effect, thus improves the absorbers performance. Load-Adjustable Shock Absorber- This type of absorber helps to pressurize the shock absorber when the springs are under load. By adjusting the pressure, it helps to maintain the car height and adjusting the suspension stiffness. This helps to reduce the discomfort of the driver and the passenger. In order to reduce the discomfort of the driver and the passenger, the driver can adjust the air spring manually. The construction is almost as similar as the air spring, where you can adjust the ride height and the stiffness of the absorber. Manual Adjustable-Rate Shock Absorber- The adjustable-rate absorber has a feature where you can change the spring oscillations by changing the rate of dampening. It has a damper rate adjustment located on the external of the shock absorber. You can control the restriction of the oil passing through by changing the valves in the piston. Electronic Adjustable-Rate Shock Absorber- It acts the same as the manual adjustable-rate shock absorber. The only different between the manual and the electronic is that the rate of the shock absorber can be controlled electronically or by drivers choice. This is a solenoid operated with the help of the ECU, which allows different types of modes to choose. Automatic Load-Adjustable Shock Absorber- Also called as self-leveling shock absorber. When theres load on the vehicle, the shock absorber will self maintain at a pre-set level. It automatically adjusts the height of the vehicle, depending on the load added at the rear axle. It consists of air-adjustable shock absorbers fitted at the rear, an air-dryer assembly, ECU, and an electrically-driven compressor. Types of Suspension System There are all sorts of suspension system being used today, and they are: Non-independent Suspension Solid / Live and Dead / Beam axle suspension system A Live axle is an old technology. It is a combination of a solid axle being put across the cars chassis, which is being connected at both front and the back of the wheels. This suspension is not independent, so when 1 wheel goes through a hump, the shock produced on that wheel will be transferred to the other wheel. This Live / Solid axle suspension consists of a drive shaft, a differential, and a strong tube enclosing all these things. The unsprung weight for this kind of suspension is very high because the whole axle assembly is fixed rigidly to the wheels. The result of an unsprung weight is that the more weight it gains, the momentum is higher. So in this case, a lot of momentum the springs have to handle because springs cannot absorb momentum, so therefore part of the momentum has to be transferred to the car body in a shock form. Because of this, this kind of axle does not provide a good ride quality. In the Dead / Beam axle, theres not driving axle on it, so therefore it has a very minimum amount of unsprung weight and it produces better ride quality than a live axle. Advantage Disadvantage Cheap Its not independent Body roll does not interfere with the camber of the wheels Theres no ride quality Simple construction The size is not practical When one wheel has a force on it, the force is being transferred to the other wheel DeDion axle suspension system In the late 70s, non-independent suspension market is stronger than the independent suspension, although the independent suspension were invented many years ago. The main reason why is because non-independent suspension is cheaper and offers better handling than the independent suspension. In this suspension, it helps to eliminate all the unsprung weight rather than the live axle suspension. It has minimum amount of unsprung weight is because the differential / final drive and the drive shafts are not rigidly attached to the rear wheels and therefore they are part of the car body and its flexibility to the wheels with the help of the universal joints. By using the DeDion technology, it helps to improve the ride quality by limit the wheel track variation when the suspension is at motion. In order to do this, the DeDion technology uses a sliding joint. The best part of using this is that it is always perpendicular to the road surface by keeping both wheels on the road surface, excludin g the body roll. Advantage Disadvantage Cheaper than most independent suspension Its not a independent suspension The camber are not being affected even with body roll The ride quality is not as good as the independent suspension The ride quality is more superior than the live axle suspension When the car is on a bump, both of the rear wheels will be cambered Semi-Independent Suspension Twist-beam rear suspension It is based on a large H shaped member. The front of the H shaped member is being attached to the chassis with the help of rubber bushings and the rear of the H shaped member is attached to the wheels. The H manage to get the support by using the cross beam. The cross beam serves as to provide roll stiffness during corner and bump. It has a twisting action when both trailing arms move vertically. Coil springs and shock absorbers are being used in this system, located either behind, or alongside with the wheels. It provides high motion ratio and the end result, giving better performance and the weight reduction. The location of the cross beam is longitudinal as the roll steer control and its camber compliance. Independent Suspension Swing axle suspension system Its an old suspension, first introduced by some sports cars in 1950s. This kind of technology has been phased out in 2 decades due to its weaknesses. The adjustment of the camber angles can be detuned by changing to a longer swinging arm. Usually, this kind of technology serves a lot of under steer, so by setting the wheels to a negative camber, it helps to reduce the unnecessary amount of under steer. Advantage Disadvantage Provides an Independent shock absorption Provides a very bad handling during corner So much body roll Tends to oversteer a lot Trailing / Leading arm suspension system A large piece of suspension that helps to support the coil springs, which are being located in front of the rear axle and connected to the axle of the cars chassis. The main role of this kind of suspension is to allow the wheels to move up and down and this does not allow the camber to change. The only time the camber changes during corners. The advantage and the disadvantage are the same as the semi-trailing arm suspension. Semi-trailing arm suspension system In this design of suspension, compare to the trailing / leading arm suspension, its pivoted in an incline angles, roughly in between 50 to 70 degrees. The feature of the suspension is the same with the trailing / leading arm suspension. In both semi-trailing and the trailing / leading arm suspension are rigidly attached to the wheels. So when taking corner or taking bump aggressively shocks and noises will be transferred to the cars chassis. But now days, automotive industry are moving to multi-link or double wishbone suspension. So therefore, the trailing / leading and semi-trailing arm suspension is going to be phased out. Advantage Disadvantage Its an all rounder, not much weakness Detuned version of multi-link suspension Understeer, but not much When the wheels are moving up and down, the camber angle changes Shocks and noise are being transferred to the cars chassis Adaptive air suspension system It uses air suspension rather than using the conventional shock absorber and coil spring. You can electronically changes the damping rates to suit the driving conditions. The air suspension inflates and deflates; depending on the driver weather the driver choose the height of the car. Advantage Disadvantage Provide precise handling Expensive parts Capable of handling heavy load Adjustable height and spring rate Torsion beam suspension system Majority of the small car segment uses this kind of suspension. Its half-independent, which consist of a torsion bar, which is being used to limit the degree of freedom when force is being produced when taking in a corner. Its more superior to its competitor, like the MacPherson strut suspension. Advantage Disadvantage Provides more leg room for the rear seat of the car and more space for the boot Doesnt provide the same ride and height quality as the double wishbone or the multi-link suspension Cheap Limited amount of freedom Easy to maintain Inferior in ride and handling quality Double wishbone suspension system In this era, many sports car such as Lotus, Ferrari, and all the famous top marquee car brands, are using this kind of suspension system because it can be used at both front and rear wheels, and to top it all off, it has almost near perfect camber control. Its has long been used in racing, sport and top of the range cars for more than 40 years as it provides better and precise control. Its main role is to maintain the wheel perpendicular with the road surface, no matter how aggressive the driver handle the car. In the early days of double wishbone, it consists of 2 parallel wishbone arms in equal length. The main problem with this is that the tyres are producing excessive scrubbing due to the variable track width when the wheels are shifted off from the neutral position. So engineers have given a best solution, which is to develop unequal length and non-parallel A-arms to solve the problem. By doing this, the engineers tilted up the upper arm. The shock absorbers and the coil springs are installed onto the wishbones because it helps the engineer to adjust camber and caster angle, toe, roll centre height and scrub radius. The reason why 1 wishbone is shorter than the other is because to make the camber negative. The shorter wishbone is installed on the upper mount. When it sets to a negative camber, the result is a positive camber gain on the outer wheel when the vehicle is turning. Not only that, the outside wheel gains back negative camber due to shorter upper arm. Advantage Disadvantage Proper camber control Not space saving Provides good handling Expensive Low unsprung weight A lot of components and needs more pick up points in the cars chassis Strong MacPherson strut Chapman strut suspension system Invented by a guy the name of Earl S. MacPherson in the 1940s. Ford started to use this kind of technology in the 1950 because of its low cost and space saving and thus, MacPherson is one of the dominating suspension system. In the design, the telescopic shock absorber purpose is control the wheel position, and because of this, it doesnt require an upper arm. It is very compact because the strut is build vertically. Many front wheel drive and compact cars inherit this kind of suspension system because of the space being occupied by the engine and the transmission. This design is not suitable in sports and performance car as its height requires a higher hood and fender line. And because of this, it doesnt provide a good handling and it has a little camber change, unlike the double wishbone suspension. MacPherson can be used in both front and rear wheels. Another kind of strut is the Chapman strut being introduced by a guy name Colin Bruce Chapman, founder of Lotus. Its another kind of Independent Rear Suspension (IRS) that is using a lateral link with a long spring strut. The features are the same as the MacPherson and its used for the rear of the wheels. Only some model such as Lotus and the Datsun are using this suspension but it has already being phased out. Advantage Disadvantage Small and compact Provides an average handling Cheap and easy to maintain Camber change due to body roll Simple design Excessive height Multi-link suspension system This kind of suspension system is being introduced in the late 1980s. More modern cars are using this kind of suspension system as it is independent suspension system, uses a minimum amount of short links being attached to the hub carrier and to the body, and it developed a consistent handling and traction. Its mainly used in rear wheels, not the front wheels. It helps to allow the individual wheel in the rear of the cart to move freely during bumps and uneven roads without affecting the opposite wheel. But during the Research Development of the cars, most manufacture favors MacPherson struts, swing axle and trailing arm because of its disadvantage of the suspension system. The multi-link suspension uses a few amounts of short links, being attached to the cars chassis. The link are being used to eliminate the changes of the camber angle during movement, and to control the Toe and Caster depending on the geometry design of the link. Some manufacturers use 3, or possibly up to 5 links to provide better performance. This kind of suspension is expensive, but an Italian company named Magneti Marelli, are developing a cost-effective multi-link suspension for small cars. In their new design, it uses a flexible links to reduce the cost and use a simple bushing to reduce noise being transmitted to the cockpit. Advantage Disadvantage Provides good handling More expensive than the MacPherson and torsion beam Provides good ride comfort Not compact Poor camber control Heavy Too complex Leaf suspension system Leaf suspension is the oldest suspension in the automotive industry. And today, there are still cars that are using leaf spring, mainly for 44, trucks, and other heavy vehicles. The leaf suspension makes its way in production in the 70s. Even some race cars are using leaf suspension system but only in dirt and asphalt. There are 4 kinds of leaf being introduced, and they are: The monoleaf: The spring is thin and provides a low rate shocks. But in this design, it requires an additional support of springs because monoleaf is not sufficient enough to support the additional load. Multileaf: Its made up to multiple layers of leaves with different length. Many 44 are using this kind of suspension as it provides higher spring rate and manage to support and control the axle. Advantage Disadvantage Capable of supporting the weight of the chassis The steel tends to lose its shape Able to control the chassis roll more efficient The handling will be affected when the sag is uneven Manage to control the rear end wrap-up and axle damping Not much adjustment Capable of controlling the lateral forces produced by the car, the same feature as the panhard bar Hard to install Manage to withstand braking forces Not much dampening so therefore, the ride will become stiff During acceleration and braking, it manage to regulate the wheelbase length Cheap Simple design Sliding pillar suspension system This kind of suspension features are almost the same as the independent rear suspension. And to be precise, it works as well as the current suspension system such as the wishbone suspension system and trailing link suspension system. But this technology is long gone in the 1950s and being replaced by wishbone. Sub-frame mounting suspension system In modern cars, reducing noise, vibration and harshness are important to the users. And in conventional suspension system, suspension systems are mounted to the chassis. In this suspension, it uses a sub-frame mounting to overcome the noise, vibration and harshness from the conventional suspension system. Its made out of aluminium to reduce the excessive weight. Rubber Suspension System The reason why rubber suspension is being introduced is because it can store more energy per mass than any conventional type of suspension. The rubber springs works during compression, meaning to say that it replaces coil spring. Twin traction beam suspension system Commonly known as a TTB. It is an independent suspension used by 44. It was first recognize by Ford in the 1950s. This kind of suspension has an axle thats able to break into two suspension members. This suspension is being used to minimize the camber and track change. When one of the wheels camber changes, the other follows but in an opposite direction. Advantage Disadvantage The suspension travel distance Camber becomes negative a lot when in corners Stability Reducing body roll Design Shock Absorber In the automotive world, there are 2 kind of basic shock absorber design that is still in use today. They are: Twin Tube design Gas Charged Twin Tube Position Sensitive Dampening (PSD) Twin Tube Acceleration Sensitive Damping (ASD) Twin Tube Mono-Tube design Air shock absorber Damper shock absorber Twin Tube Damper Low Pressure Gas Filled Twin Tube Damper High Pressure Gas Filled Mono Tube Damper Linear Damper Before I explain further the difference between these two shock absorbers, I would like to explain the basics of the shock absorber. Many people dont really know, or even care about the importance of the shock absorber. The main role of a shock absorber, in general, is to reduce as much movement of the suspension and the spring control as minimum as possible. To accomplish this, the hydraulic fluid helps to remove all these energy through thermal, or heat energy. The construction of a shock absorber is practically like an oil pumps. The piston is used to push the hydraulic fluid into the pressure tube with the assist of a piston rod. The hydraulic fluid is being forced to go through tiny orifices into the piston as the suspension is at motion, which is up and down. The resistance of a shock absorber varies, depending on how fast and the size of the orifices being pushed through the piston. Modern shock absorber can reduce the amount of bounce, roll, brake dive and acceleration squat because of the velocity sensitive hydraulic dampening being installed into the shock absorber. In other words, the faster the suspension movement, the higher the resistance of the shock absorber being provided. When the shock absorber is in motion, its moving up and down. When it moves up and down, it means the shock absorber is doing a compression cycle and extension cycle. Lets take a closer look at the compression and extension cycle. Compression Cycle In order for the fluid to move from chamber A to chamber B, it has to go through 3 valve stages in the compression valve. When the piston is in a slow motion, the piston pushes the fluid flows through the oil port but with a restricted amount of fluid being flown to the oil port in order for both chambers to be controlled. But when the piston are moving in a fast motion, the opening of the disc from the valve seat are open widely in the camber B and causes the increase of fluid pressure below the piston. Theres restriction in the third stage orifice when the vehicle are at high speed. Extension Cycle The extension cycle happens where the piston and the rod are being pushed upwards. When the piston are moving upwards, the pressure in the chamber A will be higher than the pressure in the chamber B and thus the fluid are being flown into chamber B by going through 3-stage extension valve. The fluid volume in chamber A is insufficient t fill into the chamber B because the piston rod are being withdrawn from chamber B and this causes the pressure in the reserve tube are greater than the pressure in chamber B, causing the compression valve to be unseated. Twin Tube Design Lets take a look at the Twin Tube design. This kind of shock absorber has 2 tubes, one is known as the working pressure or pressure tube, and the other tube is known as the reserve tube. As you can see the picture on the left, the outer tube is used to store excessive fluid when the shock absorber is moving upwards and downwards. When the pressure tube is short of fluid, the reserve tube sends fluid to the pressure tube. During compression, the fluid in the pressure tube sends fluid to the reserve tube. The upper mount of the shock absorber are usually being connected to the vehicles chassis. There are all sorts of rubber being used in between the shock absorber and the chassis in order to reduce road noise and vibration being transmitted to the cockpit. The rubber bushings are flexible, so therefore the suspension can move freely. In the picture, you can see that the upper mount is also known as the piston rod, and the bottom of it is a piston. The piston rod needs to be guided when its at motion, so the engineers use a rod guide; some call it bushing, to keep the piston and the piston rod straight. The seal are being used to keep the fluid and the pressure inside the shock absorber. At the base of the shock absorber, theres a base valve, normally known as a compression valve. This item helps to control the fluid movement when the shock absorber is at motion. The design / bore size of the piston varies, depending on what application. Most 44 are using bigger bore size than the sedan cars. And because of the large piston diameter, the unit will become larger and the potential control will be higher. With bigger diameter, the operating temperature and the pressure is low due to area of the shock absorber and the piston bore and thus, this provides higher damping capabilities than the smaller bore. There are a few types of twin tube shock absorber: Gas Charged Twin Tube shock absorber Position Sensitive Damping (PSD) Twin Tube shock absorber Acceleration Sensitive Damping (ASD) Twin Tube shocker Gas Charged Twin Tube Shock Absorber This kind of suspension system uses low pressured nitrogen gas in the reserve tube but the amount of nitrogen gas varies, depending on the amount of fluid inside the reserve tube. The purpose of the gas is to minimize the hydraulic fluid aeration to prevent the foam build up because foam can be compressed. The gas charged shock absorber provides engineers more flexibility to design the valve. The other main advantage is that in the vehicle, it creates a mild boost of spring rate. Among the other benefits of this shock absorber is: The reduction of roll , sway and dive, the handling is improved Providing better smooth control in any road conditions and corners Longer heat transfer in gas charged shock absorber Position Sensitive Damping (PSD) Twin Tube Shock Absorber The Position Sensitive Charged is still new in the automotive world. In this design, the ride control and comfort are optimized, thanks to the tapered grooves located at the pressure tube. This absorber provides a smooth and a comfortable by reducing the resistance onto the piston, by allowing the fluid to pass freely and smooth around the piston. Here are the advantages of this shock absorber: Providing a smooth ride Can easily adapt to variable road and weight conditions. Acceleration Sensitive Damping (ASD) Twin Tube Shocker The features of this absorber is the same as the other twin tube shock absorber, the only addition is that the compression valve is design to sense a bump on the road and automatically adjust the shock to provide better control of the shock absorbed. Mono-Tube Design In the mono-tube design, theres only one tube in the high-pressure gas shocks, known as the pressure tube. There are two working piston inside the mono-tube design, that is a working piston and a dividing piston. The mono-tube and the twin tube design are almost similar but the only difference is that the mono-tube can be install in any way, either mounted upside down or right side up, but either way, it still works the same. The unique design of the shocks is that it doesnt use a base valve, but it uses a piston to control the extensions and compressions. In the mono-tube design, it has a larger pressure tube to comply with the dead length, compared with the twin tube design. The downside of this design is that its going to be difficult for the engineers to install this kind of shocks into the cars instead with the twin tube design. The separation of the gas and the oil is done, with the help of the free-floating dividing piston. The gas below the dividing piston is pressurized, at around 360 psi to accommodate the vehicles weight. When the shocks are at motion, the movement of the dividing piston varies, depending on the movement of the piston rod in order for the pressure in the tube are pressurized at all times. Heres the upside of the design: Can be mounted freely, compare to the twin tube design, and helping to reduce the unnecessary unsprung weight The working tube can work harder because the working tube is exposed, so therefore can be cooled easily. Every upside of the design, theres always a downside: Easily destroyed when theres a dent Hard to install onto the passengers car that has a twin tube design Damper Shock Absorber Damper shock absorber, or as short, damper, are used to provide an optimum absorption of shocks and smooth lateral deceleration. The dampers can be powered by fluid, or mechanically powered.